Should Medicaid Pay for Abortion

Should Medicaid pay for abortion? This is a very touchy subject and one that has been in the newspapers for months now. It is also the main reason that the passing of the historic health was postponed for the amount of time that it was. I think that even though abortion is a touchy subject and won that has been a main topic since â€Å"Roe vs. Wade in 1973,† I think that is a very important topic and one that will always be discussed for much more time. I think that abortion should be legal and be the decision of the parties involved to make the decision on whether to have one or not.Also, I believe think that abortion should be covered by the tax payers in the case o rape or incest because both of those instances could result in a very tough life for the baby. Either the child will be hated by its mother because every day she looks at him/her it reminds her of her rapist, or the child is born with birth defects. To thoroughly make a good decision on where you stand with the a bortion topic, I think that you must first find out what abortion actually is.Abortion is the induced termination of a pregnancy with destruction of the embryo or fetus, any of various procedures resulting in the termination of a pregnancy, cessation of normal growth, especially of an organ or other body part, prior to full development or maturation, and the premature ending or abandonment of an undertaking. Abortion procedures include manual vacuum aspiration and dilation and suction curettage, both of which can be performed in early pregnancy.The social acceptability of abortion as a means of population control has varied from time to time and place to place throughout history. â€Å"It was apparently a common method of family limitation in the Greco-Roman world, but Christian theologians early and vehemently condemned it. It became widely accepted in Europe in the middle Ages. Severe criminal sanctions to deter abortion became common in the 19th century, but in the 20th century those sanctions were gradually modified in many countries. † In the U. S. the 1973 Roe v.Wade decision had the effect of legalizing abortion during the first three months of pregnancy; states were able to implement restrictions on access to abortion after the first trimester, though within constraints set by the courts. Since that decision, there has been a fierce debate between supporters and opponents of a liberalized abortion policy. As you see this is something that has been debated for centuries upon centuries. I have read many articals on abortion and how the procedure is actually conducted.The procedure seems to be very gruesome, that is why I can understand why some people like rep. Bart Stupak are diehard pro-life supporters. If you can recall Bart Stupak who is a senator from Michigan (our own state) was the democrat who along with twelve other pro-life democrats held up the passing of the healthcare bill with his votes until President Obama agreed to sign an executi ve order stating that government funding will not go to covering abortion in this new health care bill. After words Stupak said â€Å"We stood strong,† said Stupak. â€Å"We stood on a principle. Stupak’s argument really goes all the way back to Roe v. Wade. After Roe v. Wade decriminalized abortion in 1973, Medicaid covered abortion care without restriction. In 1976, Representative Henry Hyde (R-IL) introduced an amendment that later passed to limit federal funding for abortion care. Effective in 1977, this provision, known as the Hyde Amendment, specifies what abortion services are covered under Medicaid. Over the past two decades, Congress has debated the limited circumstances under which federal funding for abortion should be allowed.For a brief period of time, coverage included cases of rape, incest, life endangerment, and physical health damage to the woman. However, beginning in 1979, the physical health exception was excluded, and in 1981 rape and incest excep tions were also excluded. In September 1993, Congress rewrote the provision to include Medicaid funding for abortions in cases where the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest. The present version of the Hyde Amendment requires coverage of abortion in cases of rape, incest, and life endangerment. The first challenges to the Hyde Amendment came shortly after its implementation.The Supreme Court has held that the Hyde Amendment restrictions are constitutional and that states participating in Medicaid are only required to cover abortion services for which they receive federal funding rather than all medically necessary abortions. Challenges under state constitutions have been more successful. Several lawsuits have been brought in individual states arguing that state constitutions afford greater protection for privacy and equal protection than the federal Constitution. The Hyde Amendment affects only federal spending. States are free to use heir own funds to cover additional abortion se rvices. For example, Hawaii, New York, and Washington have enacted laws funding abortions for health reasons. Other states, such as Maryland, cover abortions for women whose pregnancies are affected by fetal abnormalities or present serious health risks. These expansions are important steps toward ensuring equal access to health care for all women. Prior to the 1993 expansion of the Hyde Amendment, thirty states chose not to use their own Medicaid funds to cover abortions for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest.Initially, a number of states expressed resistance to comply with the expanded Hyde Amendment, and presently thirteen states are under court orders to comply and cover rape and incest in addition to life endangerment. â€Å"Every court that has considered the Hyde Amendment's application to a state's Medicaid program since 1993 has held that states continuing to participate in the Medicaid program must cover abortions resulting from rape or incest in order to be compli ant with the Hyde Amendment, regardless of state laws that may be more restrictive. Federal funding has been covering abortion for years and according to the Hyde Amendment it covers incest and rape. My research has also led me to see that Michigan is one of twenty seven states that receive funding under the Hyde Amendment. This means that one of the states that use federal funding for abortion in special cases has the main representative that is arguing that exact system. This is kind of ironic to me. If the federal funding is there and actually has been there for seventeen years what the point of arguing the bill that will eventually save the government money.I have found some interesting information that if looked at maybe by some of our politicians they would not cause such a big fuss like Stupak and some other extreme conservatives like Sarah Palin about a the health care bill that not only is in the best interest of the people but also the best interest of the government in te rms of the budget but also the insurance companies who now will have more policies out there to bring in more revenue. Here are some interesting facts that I found about what type of women have abortions and why. Women with family incomes less than $15,000 obtain 28. 7% of all abortions; Women with family incomes between $15,000 and $29,999 obtain 19. 5%; Women with family incomes between $30,000 and $59,999 obtain 38. 0%;Women with family incomes over $60,000 obtain 13. 8%. † The reason women have abortion are as follows, â€Å"1% of all abortions occur because of rape or incest; 6% of abortions occur because of potential health problems regarding either the mother or child, and 93% of all abortions occur for social reasons (i. e. he child is unwanted or inconvenient). † So why not allow the health care bill to cover abortion? If the bill is basically just going to keep the Hyde Amendment rule in place or maybe take it another step forward and require police reports on alleged rapes and incest it really will not make a difference. If only one percent of all abortion are due to rape or incest, that amount of spending will not even dent the federal funding. I think more money is spent by politicians on their private jets that take all over the United States just to make appearances.While abortion remains perhaps the most contentious issue in American politics, what is one person’s principled stand is another’s crime against humanity. Abortion is a decision that should be made by the person going through the process not some politician from Texas for example who lives in a ten thousand square foot home and makes probably a million dollars a year after kick backs. Also if the system of states covering under the correct circumstances has been working for almost twenty years then I say why change it.Many times people let their emotions and personal feeling make their decisions when all they have do is put themselves in the position of the women who was raped, or the male is out of the picture and the mother will not be able to financially support a child and the child might end up in a dumpster, in the street or living in foster homes its whole life. I look at this way and I’m going to state a question to some of these people who think federal funding should not pay for this. Financially speaking as a nation, Is it financially better to cover a $500 dollar procedure once or pay for Medicare, housing, and food for eighteen years?From doing the basic math I think the $500 is a lot cheaper. The United States is a business. And just like any other business it needs money to survive. To maintain that money it has a budget, and that budget at this point is in a major deficit. This bill will save trillions of dollars over the next fifteen years imagine how much more money they could save all states allowed the lower income poverty striking women to have abortion under the state insurance, trillions more would be sav ed. Basic math is the key to answering this, in the end its all business.WORK CITED 1. Gregg Cunningham, WHY ABORTION IS GENOCIDE Winter 2000 2. AMERICAN GOVERNMENT TEXT BOOK 3. Megan Carpentier, Bart Stupak is no healthcare hero (march 22, 2010) 4. Peter Roff, The Next Healthcare Reform Fight: Make the Abortion Executive Order Law (March 24, 2010) Pr 5. Steven Ertelt , New Catholic Bishops Memo: Abortion in Health Care Despite Obama Order (March 30, 2010) 6. Tres Sugar, Congress Debates Whether Health Care Should Cover Abortion (07/09/2009) 7. Angela Blair, Obama's Healthcare Bill Requires All Americans to Pay For Abortions (3/7/2010) 8. The Henry J. Kaiser Foundation, â€Å"Medicaid's Role for Women. Issue Briefs: An Update on Women's Health Policy (November 2004). 9. The Guttmacher Institute, â€Å"State Funding of Abortion Under Medicaid. † State Policies in Brief (June 1, 2005). ———————————â₠¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [ 2 ]. American government: page 102 [ 3 ]. www. abortion. com [ 4 ]. www. csmonitor. com [ 5 ]. The Henry J. Kaiser Foundation, â€Å"Medicaid's Role for Women. † Issue Briefs: An Update on Women's Health Policy (November 2004). [ 6 ]. The Guttmacher Institute, â€Å"State Funding of Abortion Under Medicaid. † State Policies in Brief (June 1, 2005). [ 7 ]. www. abortionno. org [ 8 ]. www. abortionno. org

HNA case study Essay

1. What contributed to HNA’s success in the China Airline Industry? 1. China’s prosperous market conditions Rising middle class (rising per capita income) Entry into WTO ïÆ'   growth in imports and exports Migration of rural population into urban cities Influx of foreign investment 2. Deregulation of civil aviation market 3. Strategic Decisions: Unconventional approach for a regional start up airline – chose to compete as a trunk line feeder Development of feeder routes in Western China – consistent with government plan to develop the â€Å"Silk Road† Effective acquisitions that helped them to expand faster 4. Effective utilization of capital markets (internal and external) to expand operational scale and lower operating costs 5. Culture Encompasses Chinese culture and Western modern management Lazy Ant Theory and Swapping System 6. Quality Excellent flight safety standards Punctuality rate is first in China 7. Clear Strategy: To be low cost provider Focused on cost structure and operating efficiency Cost per ASK was very low Lower maintenance cost Similar model of planes Ran aircrafts longer Investment in technology Lower staffing cost per ASK 8. Started outside CAAC – did not have to adhere to government standard. Forced them to be more aggressive 9. Strong Interrelation among the blocks of businesses contributes to increasing revenue for their airline business 2. What are the challenges that the company faces at both the business and corporate levels? Business Unit Price of Oil (airline) High financing costs (airline) Entry of budget hotel competitors (hotel) Entry of upscale international franchise (Hilton etc) into hotel industry (hotel) Credit rating firm downgraded the airline to second lowest rating Corporate level High debt level puts the company into difficulty of raising funds to expand Relative industries block – important to maintain relevance to its airline business 3. Was the company’s increasing breadth a distraction to the airline business or a route to competitive advantage? The increasing breadth might work in favor for HNA’s airline business as they seek to revamp itself into Grand China Airline. By increasing its breadth, it can help to strengthen the new airline brand name to other parts of the world. Particularly for the hotel business, HNA can utilize them to promote the brand presence of its airline business to tourists. However, HNA need to be careful of the breadth of business it can extend to. It should be kept within the boundaries of the airline industry such that whatever industries it is trying to expand to, it should contribute directly to its airline business (obvious synergy). For example, the departmental store business does not create synergy with the airline business.

Why the Islam is a threat to the Western world Essay

Why the Islam is a threat to the Western world - Essay Example ng of thousands of Muslims that are living in the Western World, and new challenges are faced by them every other day due to the deteriorated circumstances created by the Islamic jihadists in these countries. In addition, plight of Western Muslims has exacerbated due to the extremism of a small number of Muslims in these countries. It is observed that many Western Muslims are putting their efforts for the improvement of image of Islam in the West; however, Islam is considered as one of the serious threats to the Western security and democracy. An extraordinary amount of anger and frustration is observed in Muslims in different parts of the globe due to the Western invasion in different Muslims parts, which has caused deaths of civilians by the Western forces in the name of War on Terrorism. A number of researches and studies have indicated that majority of the Muslim World has a negative and angry opinion related to the Western countries and its anti-Islamic policies. (Pratt, pp. 40-47) Moreover, a number of Western countries and its sensible individuals take the terrorist activities as isolated incidents of aggression rather than taking it as an Islamic threat. However, such positive perspective towards Islam has been affected by some issues that keep on presenting Islam as a religion of terror. The Western psyche has been affected by the attacks of September 11 on New York Twin Towers, as well as, suicide bombings on US-led forces and buildings in different parts of the world, particularly Iraq and Israel. In the result, Islam and Muslims are taken as terrorists and threats due to a number of episodes of suicide bombings. One of the reasons of such adverse effects on the Western psyche is the wrong utilization of freedom of speech by a minority of Western Muslims that present such terrorist activities as a noble and Islamic strategy of Islam religion. In the result, such negative approach has presented Islam as a threat and barbaric religion in the Western

Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Management - Assignment Example Indirect export is one of the five market entry strategies that can be implied by businesses while implementing global strategies. In the indirect export strategy, there is a minimum amount of risk involved. On the other hand, the level of control of the market is also the least in this strategy. The market control is less due to the reason that products are being transferred abroad by other intermediaries (Levesque, 2004). In this strategy, the organisation does not get involved in any type of marketing. No type of marketing or any other activity is conducted in the strategy of indirect exporting. The sales in such a strategy are conducted as sales in a domestic market. Indirect exporting has the ability to invest in new markets and to do this they do not require any expertise or high amounts of investments. The strategy of indirect exporting is a common strategy initiated by organisations as a market entry strategy. If organisations become successful with the results of this strategy then they plan towards further agreements with the organisations of the host country (Terpstra and Sarathy, 2001). Indirect exporting is conducted via sales organisations that are domestically located. Domestic sales organisation is considered to be an easy method of managing sales in foreign markets. In this strategy, products can be bought and sold in the domestic market and it can be resold in the foreign market. The firm that is exporting the products needs to be in touch with the marketing activities of the foreign market so that they are able to increase the sales of their products at a constant note (Raff, Ryan, and Stahler, 2009). International trading companies is another form of indirect exporting. This type of indirect exporting is conducted by initiating local offices across the globe. Examples of international trading companies can be Mitsubishi Company of Japan. The international trading

Marketing Managemant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing Managemant - Essay Example However, this is not always the case. Sometimes firms charge higher prices when they enter a new market. This strategy is referred to as Price Skimming by the market tacticians. For example, Governments often set prices high in a marketplace where it considered that increase in competition will contribute towards market efficiency. For example, In Saudi Arabia the oil cost to the government is extremely low but they charge a good amount of price in the market to encourage more competitors in the market. This is just one example. Another example of this can be the market public utilities where huge sums of investments are required. The governments in order finance such large investments often keep high initial consumer prices to make sure that more and more companies enter the market and total investment in the country increases as it has many macro-economic advantages. Price skimming is said to be very advantageous for the new firm entering the market and also for the marketing as a whole. For a higher price would mean higher profits for the firm itself and they won't have to resort to lower revenues and lower profits in the context of penetration pricing.

La Primavera (or Spring) and The Tree of Death and Life Essay

La Primavera (or Spring) and The Tree of Death and Life - Essay Example Botticelli's masterwork implies poetic allegory embracing the theme of love and a certain philosophical meaning as it depicts the Garden of Hesperides, which I will dwell on in more detail below. The plot of the painting is being developed from right to left. There is an ominous figure with wings and swollen cheeks dressed in a greenish flowing cloak in the upper right corner of the painting. His name is Zephyrus and he is a symbol of the wind. One can see how the trunks of trees bent influenced by the flight of this mysterious figure. A scared nymph named Chloris, to the left from Zephyrus, tries to run away touching another woman on the left as if asking her for protection. But the woman neglects the nymph, who tries hard to flee from the wind on the right from her, and is walking to the bottom of the painting. It must be noted that this woman in a long dress embroidered with flowers, with a thin face that registers no emotion and a wreath on the golden hair is depicted in the afor ementioned Ovid's poem Fasti that Botticelli was inspired with when creating his masterpiece. In Ovid's poem she is referred to as Spring but, as a matter of fact, this woman might as well be the goddess of flowers and plants, Flora. In the Botticelli's painting she had a dress embroidered with red and blue cornflowers, symbols of amiability and good nature, and scattered roses, which was the usual thing for rich Florentine weddings. The wreath around her neck is made of strawberries that symbolize tenderness, chamomile.

Other topic Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Other topic - Research Paper Example This section is going to present how the research was carried out. It will give the approaches taken in the research and the philosophical assumption of the approach. Research approaches are plans and steps that explain how the research will be undertaken and the procedures and methods for data collection, analysis, and presentation (Karin 16). This study adopted a qualitative approach of research which involves studying and exploring new phenomena and problems with a certain group of people. It is a method best used in the social sciences and also in market research to explore the behavior of people or groups of people towards certain products (Karin 12). This approach best suited this study since the study wanted to explore the impacts that electronic marketing has on the service industry in Tallinn City. This study intended to gather in-depth understanding of the behavior of users of electronic marketing facilities and qualitative approach is the best to use on this kind of study. Furthermore, a small selected sample was used to facilitate the research and it is one of the features of qualitative approach of study (Karin, 12). The philosophical assumption behind this qualitative approach of research is constructivism. According to Karin, it is an assumption that mostly focuses on the interaction of human being with one another on their world (21). The study of impacts of electronic marketing in the service industry in Tallinn City is a study on the interaction of people as they shop for goods and services purchased and receive cash for the service rendered. The constructivism philosophical assumption has it that human beings develop meaning from their interaction in the world they live in, (Karin, 21). The aim of the research design is to provide a way of answering the research questions (Damon, Pedersen and McEvoy, 132). It is to provide the outline of the

Product strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Product strategy - Case Study Example The following discussion seeks to implement the beverage, grocery, and baking industry pricing practices. The industry firms embark on a process of innovating and producing products that will achieve the desired responses. The IBIS World research report indicates that the companies present in the industry embark on customer-value oriented strategies in order to acquire their long-term goals and objectives (Stark, 2007). For example, Coca-Cola and Pepsi companies engage in the production of soft drinks in flavors best favored by different consumer groups. However, the companies embark on the use of credible pricing strategies in reflection to the market’s consumer needs. Notably, soft drinks manufacturers and grocery wholesalers engage in price-penetration strategy to ensure that their market segments grow competitively. The research study indicates that Coca Cola’s growth rate is overwhelming compared to its competitor, Pepsi that currently stands at a -1.7% (Ibis World Reports, 2014). On the other hand, retail and wholesale chains that grow, produce, and sale groceries an d baked products reveal similar pricing practices. For instance, Wal-Mart and ASDA retail stores have acquired profitable market segments and subsequent growth rates from the market due to the use of price-penetration strategies (Levin, & Kalal, 2003). The companies present in the food industry seems to implement similar objectives. For example, the companies realize that growth and diversification of investments remain a beneficial strategy since it enables businesses to enjoy economies of scale (Ibis World Reports, 2014). Asda Retail chains engage in market-penetration strategies and the use of low prices to increase their consumer-value responses. It is evident that the companies practice the use of high quality production practices to sell at medium prices to the customers (Levin, & Kalal, 2003). The

Interracial Marriage in China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Interracial Marriage in China - Essay Example The paper will then conclude by discussing the significance of race within this period. Branding, which is the word used within this text to describe the ultimate affects of any such a union, originated as the act of using an extremely hot implement to mark the flesh of humans and livestock. The practice of branding, including that of physically marking human beings, began long before recorded history. Although originally intended to mark ownership in cattle, it was also used as a form of punishment, and employed to distinguish criminals, slaves, and prisoners of war. In Western civilization, branding was banned as a form of punishment in the late 1800s.2 Historically, having a brand was a symbol or mark of identification and ownership - it labeled the person, significating what they were, rather than who they were; criminal, slave, and so forth, and the fact of being branded considered a sign of public shame and personal humiliation. Of course, this marking, including its accompanying reputation, remained with a person for the rest of their life. The use of this word in the above statement, therefore, gives a very clear indication of the attitudes among the general population of the early 20th century towards the idea of interracial marriages. Not only were these types of relationships negatively viewed, but they were also considered as being both shameful and humiliating. Consequently, Tom Frew, his Chinese wife, and their unborn children, would have all been branded with this public mark of shame, of derision, and of exclusion in certain quarters. Early Twentieth Century Worldviews "It has been justly remarked that a nation's civilization may be estimated by the rank which females hold in society. If the civilization of China be judged of by this test, she is surely far from occupying that first place which she so strongly claims" (Chinese Repository, vol. 2, 1833, p. 313). Although this quote is earlier than the period that this essay is addressing, existing worldviews during the earlier twentieth century were based on similar principles, and were rooted within this theory. Within the 1920s, Chinese women were generally seen throughout the Western world, as demonstrated through the above quote, as representative objects of an inferior, underdeveloped society. Almost despised, considered second-rate, this very common worldview, meant that Tom Frew and his Chinese family would face severe discrimatory attitudes and practices where ever they chose to live. "Could he live anywhere, with a Chinese wife" the statement demands. Only, it would seem, with the greatest of difficulties. America, in the early twentieth century, was very suspicious of the Chinese, especially in relation to the influx of immigration. Chinatowns had sprung up throughout many of the major cities - the result of the clash of two distinctively different cultures - and although living in the same city, there was little attempt at integration by either the Chinese or American people. Each community kept within its cultural boundaries, holding onto its group identity, and ensuring the continuation of this through imposing restrictive

All About Me Essay Example for Free

All About Me Essay My father always told me â€Å"if at first you don’t succeed, try and try again. † I have always found this advice useful. My family, my academic interests, and my future goals shape the person I am today. My family consists of six members. My father, the one who shows me the right paths, my mother who cares for me and teaches me to be understanding and supporting. My brother, whom I always fight with like how a good friends does. My grandparents who always taught me what I’m supposed to do. I learnt a lot of things because of my family, how should I behave in front of others, to be helpful and what I can do to improve my myself. Basically the things I should do at the right time. I really don’t know I would have done if had no family. Things would have been a lot different. My family has helped me to be what I am today. I like a lot of academic activities. My main interests are in technology and astronomy. I develop this interest by watching about it on television. My interest in technology helps me know what technology is around me and how can I can use it in the area which interests me. World is changing. Healthcare has improved very much. The average life span has now increased to 80 – 90 Years and with growing research in medicine, very soon, people will live more than 100 Yrs. The ageing population will have lower productivity but will need to be fed. I believe agriculture in future will provide challenging opportunities. This challenge interests me very much. My aim is to become a microbotic engineer. My aim is to help the farmers with better technology so that they can become more productive and grow more with less. I want to play a small part to help the world in area of agriculture. I want to make something that increases the productivity rate of a farmer with fewer amounts of water, area, land and minerals. With less cost of these, the farmer can produce more crops. I thought of making microbots that can be placed in the soil in the middle of 4 seeds. These microbots should be able to detect the humidity and mineral content. If there are fewer amounts of water or minerals it can communicate with another robot wirelessly which can come to the place where there is requirements and give the required amount of whatever is needed. This could be done instead of watering acres of land. To reach my aim I will try to join clubs that teach how to make robots. I would also like to learn how to make micro chips so I can make my own robots with my technology in it.

Recruitment And Selection From The Exchange Perspective

Recruitment And Selection From The Exchange Perspective Subsequent to the recruitment of a pool of applicants, organisations need to decide on which applicants to employ. Many organisations are realising the important contribution, effective selection practice can make, and in light of this, are utilising an assortment of methods to improve the successfulness of the entire recruitment and selection process. Validity and reliability are two important aspects that are considered fundamental when assessing the robustness of selection tools, particularly when viewed from the traditional psychometric perspective (Searle, 2003). All selection methods and tools are developed to measure and assess candidates appropriateness for the specified job role. The performance results of the candidate, are frequently used to make the decision, therefore it is imperative that these results are reliable and accurate. Validity concerns the appropriateness of what is being measured, whilst reliability focuses on its accuracy (Searle, 2003). Validity is generally identified in four ways including face, content, construct and criterion related validity. The form of the selection test is what concerns face validity. For example, a test of verbal comprehension that contains only mathematical equations would measure what it sets out to (Searle, 2003). However, there is disagreement as to how far this can be considered a type of validity. Vernon and Parry (1949) found in their well-known research of US army cook selection, that even though the high face validity of the test used which included recipes and method information, what was actually being measured was reading abilities and not cooking skills (Searle, 2003). For test-takers, face validity is imperative as they have made an effort in applying and trying to get the job role, therefore want to believe they have been assessed for something appropriate for the job they have applied for. A potential dilemma with this method lies with the fact that some test-takers may, bas ed on the appearance of the test, perceive their own idea of what is actually being assessed, and may in response distort themselves consequently. Content validity relates to the adequacy of coverage of a conceptual domain (Searle, 2003). It is frequently found in ability tests whereby a test-taker is asked to demonstrate their ability in a specific subject. Other than face validity, it is the only form of validity based on logical rather than statistical information (Searle, 2003). The fundamental concern is the sufficient coverage of the domain. As a result, this form of assessment is often constructed by a panel of experts to ensure sufficient breadth of coverage (Searle, 2003), which can result in two potential problems including content under-representation and construct-irrelevant variance. Cronbach and Meehl (1955) first established the concept of construct validity, when they suggested that underlying each test is a construct that is being assessed (Searle, 2003). Construct validation assumes that anything can be defined and measured. We cannot read someones intelligence metre, therefore a hypothetical construct defining what intelligence is has first to be created in order to measure it (Searle, 2003). There has been criticism of this as a basis for measurement within the human sciences. Stevens (1946) argued that the null hypothesis is hardly ever taken into account; kilne (1998) also critiques this measurement issue. A key concern of test-developers is to show the relationships between their instrument and other established tests which are assessing a similar domain. Criterion-related validity is the final form and is associated with what is being measured to an external criterion (Searle, 2003). It focuses on external measures, such as job success, establishing the relationship between the predictors (results from the selection methods used) and the criterion (performance on the job). The significant issue concerned with this form of validity is the adequacy of the identification and assessment of the external standard (Searle, 2003). Frequently the external measure is chosen for its convenience instead of its relation to the dimension to be assessed (Murphy, 2000) resulting in a possible difficulty. Criterion validity can be assessed in two distinct ways: Predictively or concurrently. The pure method (Bach, 2005) of establishing this relationship is to measure applicants during selection and based of methods used, predict future performance; predictive validity. Applicants are NOT CHOSEN on this basis, but either all or a cross-section (both good and bad predicted applicants) of applicants are taken on. After period on the job, performance is measured and correlation established between the selection method prediction and the job performance criterion measure. The AIM here is to avoid false negatives and positives (Bach, 2005). Practical difficulties with this process of validating selection methods arise, such as need to get results from fairly large number of individuals. A more obvious problem however, is the reluctance of decision makers to agree to employ individuals who are predicted to be poor performers. The CONCURRENT METHOD of validation is sometimes used to avoid this difficulty. The assumption is that existing employees demonstrate variable job performance. If a new selection method can discriminate between good or poor performers, then should be able to in same way between applicants. PROBLEMS motivation of current employees different to candidates, this may affect scores. Candidates likely to try harder. Current employees a restricted sample as have previously been selected by some method, so may on average be better than average candidate. Does not prove that the differences in team skills, as measured by the group exercise, were evident prior to employment. (might be that they werent learnt by employees as by-product of their work). When establishing the value of a test, the development of validity is central as it provides an indication of the strength of the relationship connecting the tool and a criterion (Searle, 2003). New statistical processes such as meta-analysis, (validity generalisation) pioneered by Schmidt and Hunter (1996, 1998, 1999), have revolutionised selection testing. They argued that although validity does differ by way of context and role, it is nonetheless moderately stable. Centred around this claim, selection tools could be moved across a variety of circumstances and roles and still maintain their extrapolative validity. The possibility of these tools being used rather than developing expensive bespoke instruments brought about the potential for huge savings for organisations. However, validity generalisation theory is not without its critics, and there are many underlying problems of this approach (Searle, 2003). Meta analysis is based on the collection and re-analysis of comparable stud ies of tools, such as the situational interview. The current application of meta-analysis studies, remove the possibilities for us to understand why situational differences emerge. They prevent us from identifying what makes a situation unique. Organisations currently operate in turbulent global environments, and evidence suggests that there are important relationships amongst task type, technology and the external environment that meta-analysis studies do not assist us in exploring. As a result of the meta-analysis dominance, selection designs cannot be improved to help organisations in these contexts. A test might produce a measure that is valid for one person, but the results may not be reproducible for another. This brings into question the issue of reliability. Reliability concerns the accuracy and consistency of a method (Bach, 2005). Increasingly, reliability is an issue which is becoming a legal requirement for selection tests yet, according to Bach, (2005) very few organisations systematically assess the reliability and validity of the selection methods they use. When psychometric tests are used, for example, there is a tendency to rely on the evidence presented in the test manual on reliability and validity based on meta-analysis research (Bach, 2005). Establishing the reliability of a selection tool involves three main elements: stability, consistency and equivalence of the results (Searle, 2003). Hermelin and Robertson, (2001) divided different selection methods into three categories (high, medium, low validity). High methods included structured interviews and cognitive ability tests. Medium included biographical data and unstructured interviews and integrity tests. Low included personality scales measuring the big five. Unfortunately evidence suggests that those methods with highest validity are not always the most popular. Rather most orgs rely on classic trio of short-listing, interviewing and references (Cook, 2003; Millmore 2003). Selection Methods Research into these initial selection stages is unbalanced, with far more work looking at the organisation-led application process, (in particular the role of biographical data) rather than the impact of applicants CV. (ALL SEARLE, 2003). The selection process typically begins with the candidate formally demonstrating their interest in the open job role. This is normally made by putting forward their CV or by completing an application form (Searle, 2003). This is commonly the first initial contact between potential employer and candidate, and as most applicants are selected out of the process at this stage, this implies that the CV, or resume, is a primary tool for the applicant in the selection process. Resumes also play an imperative role in the two-way selection process. For candidates, they represent an imperative chance to market themselves positively, and make an impression on the reader with their skills, knowledge and abilities (Searle, 2003). For the employer, they are the foundation on which short-listing decisions are made. The use of competency statements however, can potentially make a false impression. Bright and Hutton (2000) highlight that such statements are problematic to verify in a similar way that qualifications can be. Given its apparent significance however, the research regarding the validity and reliability of resumes to the selection process is modest. To congregate information in a standardised way, organisations may prefer applicants to complete a specific application form. Shackleton and Newell (1991) in their study, found that 93 percent of organisations in the UK used application forms. Now that technology has significantly advanced, many organisations in the UK, in particular those dealing with high volumes of applicants will use online application forms. In addition to gathering personal information they also make available information about candidates experiences. Within this area of selection practice is ahead of research, so although claims are made about the increased access to jobs, the new internet medium may-be overrated (Searle, 2003). However it does enable a more cost-effective short-listing process, (Polyhart et al 2003) but how far this is free from discrimination remains to be seen. Interviews Interviews are one of the oldest, yet most popular tools used in selection. Virtually all employers use interviews for all categories of staff (Bach, 2005). Interviews enable several important assessments to be made, and evidence by Robertson and Smith (2001) indicates that they have high predictive validity regarding future job and training performance. They offer an opportunity for a direct experience of a candidates behaviour coupled with the potential to ask more probing questions regarding underlying cognitive, motivational and emotional issues. Employers are however more aware of their limitations and being more careful by using variety of complementary selection techniques for some groups including graduates. There are two central theoretical perspectives that are taken regarding an interview: the objectivist psychometric perspective and the subjectivist social-interactionist perspective. The objective psychometric perspective places the interview at one extreme. It considers the interview an objective and accurate means of assessing an applicants suitability for a job. From this perspective, the process places the interviewee as a passive participant who provides relevant information about their experiences and capabilities. Thus this perspective reduces the interview to a verbally administered psychometric test which concerns of structure, reliability and validity predominating. First the interviewer is regarded as a rational decision-maker, who is capable of collecting in an impartial manner information on a number of relevant selection criteria. Implicit in such a process is the interviewers ability to obtain relevant data accurately. Second, it is assumed that they have the skills to be able to accurately interpret the information, relate it impartially to the criteria and assess the candidates suitability based on the sample of behaviour provided. This perspective tends to dominate in the field. Much of the research has examined how the validity and reliability of the process can be maintained. Inevitably the focus rests on the interviewer as a potential corrupter of an otherwise objective tool. The interviewers role in producing and perpetuating bias has been the main area of interest, and there has been limited effort until recently into questioning the candidates motivation to present the correct information, or in contaminating the interview. The alternative perspective, places the interview at the other extreme. It considers the process to be a social interaction in which a subjective, socially balanced negotiation occurs. In this perspective, a far more evenly balanced dynamic emerges between each party, both having the same power in the situation. The parties are considered to become participant observers in the process. The interview thus emerges as a complex and unique event. In the selection context, those involved are engaged in creating a variable psychological contract regarding their mutual expectations of future working relationships. The importance of the psychological contract at the onset and its maintenance throughout the employment relationship cannot be overstated (Rousseau, 2001). Herriot (1987) argued that this interactive and social perspective is important because it places the applicant as a far more active player in the negotiation process. This concept is particularly valid in a job market in which the applicants skills and experience are in short supply, or important to the organisation. Under these conditions, the applicant plays a key role in dictating the terms and conditions under which they will be employed. From this perspective, each interview is potentially unique because of the players involved, with the parties creating a particular process that emerges from their current context. The key research issues of this perspective are concerned with the type of psychological contract reached, bias and fairness. Like the objectivist perspective, this approach is also concerned with the future, but not regarding job performance, instead a focus might explore what happens if the contract being negotiated is violated. Structure The single issue that has received most attention in research on the interview is the amount of structure in an interview, ranging from unstructured to structured. Traditionally interviews classed as unstructured, generally consisted of a discussion between the applicant and recruiter with no pre-set topics. An early study by Kelly and Fiske, (1951) highlighted negative evidence suggesting there is little consistency or reliability in unstructured interviews. According to Bach, (2005) UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS are bad predictors because the information which is extracted is different for each individual and differs between interviewers and so comparisons between candidates cannot be made reliably. With different questions being asked of each candidate is almost inevitable that subjective biases makes the interview both unreliable and invalid. However, this form of interviewing provides, at its best, a surrogate measurement of the candidates social skills (Searle, 2003). The term struct ured interview can cover a wide range of processes. According to the objectivist perspective, the structured interview process focuses on the interviewer asking a pre-set sequence of questions aimed at eliciting information relating to pre-determined criteria. The purpose of the structure is to close the process to any extraneous influences, so that even when different interviewers are involved, the same data are being gathered, thereby providing a means of comparing the candidates. As a result, the process of delivering the questions is standardised. Research has shown, that increasing the structure of the interview significantly increases predictive validity and that organisations are responding by using more structured interview approaches (Taylor et al 2002). The subjectivist perspective however, instead regards the interview as a two-way process in which the actions of each party inform and shape the actions of the other. From this perspective, attention shifts towards understa nding the very process of the interview, which emerges as an ongoing exchange, informed and transformed by those involved. Typically the interview is the first time the interviewer meets with the applicant. The recruiters are presenting an image of the organisation in terms of its standards, values, expectations, ambitions and goals. The interview is therefore a public information exercise providing candidates with valuable data that will assist them in deciding whether to accept the job or not if offered it. While structured interviews can certainly be beneficial their usefulness will depend on the specific context. Where jobs are highly prescribed and knowledge about how work needs to be carried out, clarity about what constitutes good performance then structured interviews are better because prediction is possible and they are better predictors. HOWEVER when an organisation is competing in a turbulent environment and there is uncertainty about what is required of individuals a less structured approach may be more appropriate. OVERSTRUCTURING can be a problem, for EXAMPLE in an unstructured interview, the interviewer can provide more realistic information about the job, with the candidate able to ask questions which relate to his or her personal needs, values, interests, goals and abilities. Through this process, applicant and interviewer can negotiate a mutually agreeable psychological contract (CIPD, 2009). ALSO the unstructured interview can operate as preliminary socialisation tacti c with the applicant learning about the culture and values of the organisation (Dipboye 1997). Psychometric testing At the heart of psychometrics lies the assumption that people differ from one another, for instance in terms of friendliness, determination and ability to use mathematical concepts, and that these differences can be measured. It is assumed when measuring these different aspects, they relate to actual behaviour that is, they relate to an external event (a behaviour) to an internal cause (a trait). Psychometrics tests aim to qualify three key aspects of individual differences; ability, personality and related work, and suggest a relationship between these two and motivation. Essentially two types can be distinguished: COGNITIVE/ABILITY TESTS or PERSONALITY TESTS. COGNITIVE: assessment of individuals intellectual abilities either in terms of general intelligence or specific abilities. PERSONALITY: assessment of an individuals general disposition to behave in a certain way in certain situations (Bach, 2005). Cognitive tests The seminal piece of work on the use of cognitive tests in selection was undertaken by Hunter and Schmidt (1990) using meta-analysis, the researchers were able to demonstrate that although the many studies on the predictive validity of test appeared to be inconsistent, when adjustments were made for various factors, results were in fact consistent and proved that cognitive tests were valid predictors in a wide range of job situations. Such tests are simple to administer and score, albeit the person using such test needs to be properly trained. For most jobs the range of intelligence of those applying for the job is likely to be very restricted (rare to have a person with IQ 140 applying for caretaker job). The consequence of this is that a measure of cognitive ability may not differentiate much between the various candidates. Secondly, cognitive tests can be biased against certain groups. Eg it is well documented that black Americans tend to score lower than whites on tests of cognit ive ability, and women tend to score higher than men on verbal ability. This raises SOCIAL AND ETHICAL issues which need to be considered when selecting particular tests. Personality measures In most UK selection situations personality measures are of self report type. There is considerably more controversy over use of personality measures than cognitive tests. Some argue they are totally useless (Blinkhorn and Johnson 1990). Research has shown that personality measurement can be useful but only when specific personality constructs are linked to specific job competencies (tett et al, 1991; Robertson and Kinder 1993). Much of this work based on BIG FIVE Extroversion Neuroticism Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness One problem with research on personality measurement has been that very different systems of personality description have been used, making it difficult to compare results. Now there is growing consensus around five-factor model of broad traits (Goldberg, 1993) and use of Costa and McCraes 1992 personality inventory which measures these five factors. Researchers have also explored the reasons for the links between personality traits and job performance. eg openness to experience appears to be related to training success (Cooper and Robertson, 1995). However, it is unlikely personality tests alone will be good predictors of future job behaviour BECAUSE job situations often present strong situational pressures which mean that differences between individuals behaviour are minimized. ALSO because it is highly unlikely that the same job can be done in very different but equally successful, ways by individuals with different personalities. This doesnt mean that personality measures have no place in selection process, but raises question of how such measures are best used within this context. Defining a personality profile and dismissing candidates who do not fit this profile is not good practice. HOWEVER obtaining measures of personality and using these as the basis of discussion during an interview can be helpful. Occupational testing occupational tests are measurement tools in world of work. The involve looking at a standard sample of behaviour that can be expressed as either a numerical scale or a category system (Cronbach, 1984). Test items are chosen specifically for their relevance to the domain of interest; for example percentage computation or word recognition. There is also an effort to standardise the delivery of the tools, ensuring that candidates have the same test experience so the only variable is their mental process. Tests used in an occupational context can be divided into two distinct groups: typical and maximal. These are based on the type of behaviour they are designed to measure. Typical behaviour tests the purpose of typical behaviour tests is to identify the direction of a persons interests and suggest types of jobs associated with these areas. Personality and interest-assessment tests used in career guidance are examples of typical behaviour instruments. However, it should be noted that they do not measure the level of skill that might be associated with this vocational choice. Maximal performance these tests are designed to assess maximal behaviour. They aim to find out what is the best the test-taker can do (Kline, 1998). Nonetheless, it has been argued that it is naive to make such a simplistic distinction between maximal and typical performance, as it artificially separates the measurement of affect and intellect and their combined relationship to performance (Goff and Ackerman, 1992). Measures concerned with maximal performance can be subdivided into three distinct types: attainment, aptitude and general intelligence. Psychological tests play an important role in selection practice. They offer organisations a means of discriminating between large numbers of applicants in a rapid and often cost effective manner. Moreover, their power in predicting successful subsequent job performance is amongst the highest of any selection tool (Robertson and Smith, 2001). Through the growth of instruments such as organisational-fit questionnaires, different attitudinal and trait assessment measures and novel ability tools, the range of psychometric tools available to organisations in increasing. Although there is an increasing use of psychometric tools in HR selection and recruitment decision making, the method is contentious. Ethnic group differences in intelligence test results reflect the ethnic divide that exists in the distribution of rewards and sanctions in our wider society (Gordon, 1997). Some argue that high intelligence quotient (IQ) scores are not important; rather, what is significant is the identification and means of assessing specific cognitive skills that are linked to job performance (Hunt, 1999). This latter group of more focused cognitive assessment tools can have a significant impact in organisations, revealing how close an applicant is to the requisite skills level estimating how much training an applicant needs to reach an acceptable standard. Psychometric tests will always be open to abuse as they offer a potential means of legitimising discrimination by those in power and authority. Underlying issues of test production and assumptions that underpin psychometrics reveal how social values and prejudice can have an impact on the development, application, analysis and interpretation of results. Whilst some may feel comfortable to reduce the value of human beings to an empirical value, there are others who see humans in terms of their potential, regardless of the social context they find themselves in. A critical issue underlying any test is the definition of the domain. Often tests are devised on an atheoretical basis, or they use the same term to mean different things. It is important that test-users require adequate conceptual rationale for a test. Concept validity is key here; nevertheless, it is often weakly developed or ignored. Without attention to this core issue, psychometrics will fail to offer any meaningful assessment and instead intelligence will be what intelligence tests measure, not what intelligence actually is. Assessment centres (Bach, 2005). Not a single selection method nor a place. Refers to utilisation of a number of different selection methods over a specified period in order for multiple assessors to assess many candidates on a range of identified competencies or behavioural dimensions. Core element is the simulation of actual work tasks in order to observe job-related behaviours (Cooper and Robertson 1995). Managerial jobs: in-tray exercises group decision making exercises = common. Intray: provides candidate with a range of correspondence (memos, letter, reports) and he/she required to make decisions in order to prioritise/deal with various problems in the material under tight schedule. Used to assess individuals planning/problem solving abilities. Group decision making exercise: small groups discuss particular problem, come to consensus/solve problem. Problem solving abilities may be assessed, but also interpersonal and leadership skills. Increasing evidence of their limitations. Jones et al (1991) concluded despite the validity of different components of an AC, overall AC validity was surprisingly low. KEY PROBLEM appears to be that managers, acting as assessors, are not able to accurately assess cross-situational abilities from the different exercises. So while managers are required to rate candidates on diff. Competencies for each exercise, these ratings appear to be defined by overall task performance of the candidate on the particular exercise, rather than specific behaviours demonstrated in activity (Iles, 1992). No. Of studies have demonstrated low correlation between the overall assessment ratings and the variety of the criterion measures of on-the-job performance (Payne et al 1992). Despite negative evidence, two important points to be made: Designing and developing an AC has potential to improve the validty of selection, but simply putting together series of exercises and running them over two days using group of untrained assessors does not guarantee that decisions will be improved. EXAMPLE: gaugler et al 1987 validity of ACs improved when larger no. Of exercises used, and psychologists instead of managers acted as assessors. When peer evaluation included as part of assessment process and when group of assessors cantained larger proportion of women. Many probs identified with ACs need to be looked at from broader perspective than simply criterion-related validity. KEY BENEFIT of using AC is it gives potential to recruit an extended opportunity to find out more about the org. In particular many of the activities are simulations of the kind of work involved. MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL negotiation can take place if both parties know more about each other. THIS REQUIRES adoption of EXCHANGE rather than psychometric view of recruitment and selection process. Recruitment and selection: Limitations of the psychometric approach As noted earlier, adopting a more systematic approach to recruitment and selection to reduce bias and errors is useful. Yet ironically, it could be argued that globalisation and organisational requirements of flexibility, innovation and commitment make the best practices somewhat problematic and suggest a need for an entirely new perspective on RS. FIRST considering degree of change, orgs now require generalists rather than specialists to take on variety of different roles which require range of skills/competencies. Even when individual recruited for specific position, highly likely job role will change. Therefore, best practice prescription of doing a thorough job analysis to identify the task and the person requirements of the particular job may be difficult or inappropriate. There is not a fixed jigsaw hole to fill. SECONDLY alongside flexibility is need for innovation. Identifying opportunities for change and designing creative solutions is crucial for the survival of many orgs. It is about encouraging people to think differently. Following best practice guidelines leads to selection on basis of whether candidates can do particular jobs efficiently and whether they fit org culture. Rather than encourage innovation, traditional selection approaches may stifle creativity. THIRDLY, orgs operating on global rather than national level. Considering array of cross-national differences it is unlikely that orgs will be effective if they simply try to replicate their home-base operation abroad (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989). To manage this diversity requires RS of people from different backgrounds with different experiences at all org levels. HOWEVER job analysis is backward looking. EXAMPLE if current job holders are all of same race/nationality, this may mean individuals from different backgrounds will be excluded because they do not fit the existing profile of a competent employee. ALSO during selection, different background candidates may respond differently so that they are at a disadvantage, again reducing their chances of being selected (SHack

Credit and Debt in Victorian England Essay -- Victorian Era

Credit and Debt in Victorian England The majority of Victorian society’s economic dealings can be summed up in two words: credit and debt. These ominous specters, which seemed to haunt Victorian England, were simultaneously able to evoke feelings of delight and doom in their â€Å"victims of vanity†. There were several different factors that contributed to the Victorian’s propensity to abuse their credit, and as a result, fall deeply into debt. In her essay, â€Å"A Husband and His Wife’s Dresses†, Erika Rappaport discusses the significant role that gender played in the credit and debt â€Å"epidemic† that plagued Victorian society. Rappaport gives a fairly detailed account of the progression of buying on credit in Victorian society. In her essay, Rappaport states that â€Å"for most of the nineteenth century, consumer credit was still informal and was based on personal trust and a financial and moral assessment of the buyer† (165). Essentially, buying on credit was based on social position rather than financial stability. She comments that in the nineteenth century, selling on credit was still a widespread practice, and â€Å"many of the commodities that filled the Victorians’ homes and adorned their bodies were bought with its helpâ₠¬  (167). Rappaport states that buying on credit â€Å"helped middle-class families on limited income set up households†, and that â€Å"approximately 80 percent of all sales in the small, elite shops of metropolitan districts were offered on credit† (167). However, as time progressed, informal store credit became increasingly risky. Consumers began to travel longer distances in order to buy their goods, and it became increasingly less common to conduct business with neighbors and relatives. As a result of these changes, â€Å"wholesale... ... bills was perpetually in the forefront of the Victorian mindset. Further Links http://www.victorianweb.org/graphics/thackeray/17.1.html Works Cited Landow, George P. â€Å"Bankruptcy in Victorian England—Threat or Myth?† The Victorian Web. 22 March 2001. 7 Nov. 2004. . Rappaport, Erika. â€Å"A Husband and His Wife’s Dresses.† The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective. Ed. Victoria de Grazia with Ellen Furlough. London: University of California Press, Ltd., 1996. 163-177. â€Å"The Victorians: Debt Could Get You in Prison.† RomanceEverAfter. 7 Nov. 2004. . Williams, Montagu Q.C. â€Å"London: Down East and Up West.† The Victorian Dictionary. 1894. 7 Nov. 2004. . Path: Finance: Money-Lenders. Credit and Debt in Victorian England Essay -- Victorian Era Credit and Debt in Victorian England The majority of Victorian society’s economic dealings can be summed up in two words: credit and debt. These ominous specters, which seemed to haunt Victorian England, were simultaneously able to evoke feelings of delight and doom in their â€Å"victims of vanity†. There were several different factors that contributed to the Victorian’s propensity to abuse their credit, and as a result, fall deeply into debt. In her essay, â€Å"A Husband and His Wife’s Dresses†, Erika Rappaport discusses the significant role that gender played in the credit and debt â€Å"epidemic† that plagued Victorian society. Rappaport gives a fairly detailed account of the progression of buying on credit in Victorian society. In her essay, Rappaport states that â€Å"for most of the nineteenth century, consumer credit was still informal and was based on personal trust and a financial and moral assessment of the buyer† (165). Essentially, buying on credit was based on social position rather than financial stability. She comments that in the nineteenth century, selling on credit was still a widespread practice, and â€Å"many of the commodities that filled the Victorians’ homes and adorned their bodies were bought with its helpâ₠¬  (167). Rappaport states that buying on credit â€Å"helped middle-class families on limited income set up households†, and that â€Å"approximately 80 percent of all sales in the small, elite shops of metropolitan districts were offered on credit† (167). However, as time progressed, informal store credit became increasingly risky. Consumers began to travel longer distances in order to buy their goods, and it became increasingly less common to conduct business with neighbors and relatives. As a result of these changes, â€Å"wholesale... ... bills was perpetually in the forefront of the Victorian mindset. Further Links http://www.victorianweb.org/graphics/thackeray/17.1.html Works Cited Landow, George P. â€Å"Bankruptcy in Victorian England—Threat or Myth?† The Victorian Web. 22 March 2001. 7 Nov. 2004. . Rappaport, Erika. â€Å"A Husband and His Wife’s Dresses.† The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective. Ed. Victoria de Grazia with Ellen Furlough. London: University of California Press, Ltd., 1996. 163-177. â€Å"The Victorians: Debt Could Get You in Prison.† RomanceEverAfter. 7 Nov. 2004. . Williams, Montagu Q.C. â€Å"London: Down East and Up West.† The Victorian Dictionary. 1894. 7 Nov. 2004. . Path: Finance: Money-Lenders.

Nature vs. Nurture in Blood Brothers Essay -- Blood Brothers Nature vs

Nature vs. Nurture in Blood Brothers As the play goes on, it becomes more and more apparent that Willie Russell believes that nurture has a lot more to do with the outcome of someone that nature. He presents this by splitting two twins at birth and tells of how they were brought up in very different ways, one in a rich and posh family, Eddie, and one in a big, poor family, Mickey. He does not go into any detail about how exactly they are brought up, however, it is quite clear that Eddie has been to a private school and has had a lot of attention in the first seven years of his life. On the other hand, Mickey appears to have not received much attention and would almost definitely have gone to a poor school. When they meet, the simple fact that they do not realise that they’re twins, especially when they find out that their birthdays are on the same day, shows that their physical appearances must have been changed quite a lot by their parents and environment. Mickey: â€Å"When’s your birthday?† Eddie: â€Å"December 12th†. Mickey: â€Å"So is mine.† It does not give any specific images of any of their appearances but you would expect Eddie to have a side parting, clean face and may be chubbier that Mickey due to a better diet and he would have been more knowledgeable about hygiene. Mickey would probably be quite a grubby boy and perhaps not as tall as Eddie but he will probably be stronger that Eddie because of the amount of time spent outside playing. Eddie would probably have watched the TV or played on a computer because it was available to him. Their language, accent and ability to use language contrasts greatly. Mickey appears to have a posh accent, or just a lot more posh than Mickey’s. When they ... ...a lot more. Later on in their lives, Eddie achieves a lot more financially that Mickey does. This is almost purely due to do with his family because he takes over the job from his dad. Mickey later finds out that the job that he has at the moment is only his because Eddie got it for him, otherwise he would probably be unemployed. However, Mickey is married and has lot more friends that Eddie. For example when they are talking in the factory: Eddie: †¦..†What’s wrong?† Mickey: â€Å"Look it’s †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ its the other lads †¦. They’re looking†. Here, Mickey doesn’t want to be seen with Eddie because he’s the boss and his friends don’t like him talking to him. Generally, Willy Russell puts over his views about the nature/nurture debate very clearly. Mickey has a poor upbringing and becomes poor whereas Eddie has a good upbringing and becomes very successful.

The History of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt Essay -- Egyptian Kingdom

The History of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt are both cradles of civilization. Both contributed greatly to human development through their achievements, failures, peoples, scientific accomplishments, philosophies, religions, and contributions. Mesopotamia is a rich flat plain created by deposits from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. At the southern end of this plain developed the first recognizable civilization, in the area known as Sumer. In 3000 B.C. Sumer contained a dozen or more city-states, each ruled by its own king and worshiped its own patron deity. The citizens of these city-states were classified into three classes: nobles and priests, commoners, and slaves. In the center of a Sumerian city usually stood a tower culminating in a temple for the patron god of the city. The Sumerians believed that this patron god owned the whole city. The Geography of this city helped a lot with the trade, and led to mathematics as well. The Sumerians developed a precise system of mathematical notation called the sexagesimal, in which the number sixty is the main element. We even use this system in our world today! The Sumerian’ chief contribution to later civilizations was writing, even though their script was pictogra phic. Through these pictographic scripts historians found a long narrative known as the Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is a great hero and ruler who sets out to recover cedar from northern lands. He travels with his companion Enkidu, who is killed by the storm god, Enlil. Mourning the loss of his companion and confronted by death himself, Gilgamesh travels the world in search of eternal life. He ends up finding the plant of eternal youth, but a serpent swallows it while he is bathing. The epic ends with his death and funeral. The Sumerians believed that the gods created people to be their slaves. The first Great Warlord came from the region of Akkad, an area north of Babylon. His name was Sargon, and he conquered all of Mesopotamia. Sargon was from a group of people called the Semites. The only difference between the Semites and the Sumerians were linguistics. Semites spoke many different languages like Akkadian, Hebrew, and Canaanite. The Sumerian people adapted the Akkadian language. Sargon and his successors ruled from Akkad until 2230 B.C, when internal disagreement ended the Akkadian... ... King Tutankhamen moved the capital back to Thebes and favored the older god Amen-Re. In the 19th Dynasty arose the greatest pharaoh, Ramses II. Ramses achieved a period of temporary peace. In this period he spent time and money on luxurious building projects. A major achievement in Egyptian society was the role of women. Women were allowed to own land and pass it down to their daughters. Women also helped with agriculture and went shopping. Women were legally equal to men but in their own class. They even started having occupations. Some were singers, dancers, priests, and professional mourners. Women were even buried next to their husbands in an elegant tomb. As you can see there are many differences and similarities between the Sumerians and Ancient Egyptians. Both were one of the first civilizations and contributed into the development of how our world works today. From politics to family life our culture today has come from a very long line of ancient civilizations and reforms. Work Cited Chambers, Mortimer, The Western Experience. McGraw-Hill College, 1999 pg. 6-20 David, A. Rosalie, The Egyptian Kingdoms. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1975.

Ethanol Production from Banana Peels Essay

Abstract: This study entitled â€Å"Ethanol Production from Waste Banana Peelings† aims to produce an alternative way in producing energy. Production of green energy from waste material has played an important role in recent days due to the depletion of non-renewable energy resources. Ethyl alcohol commonly called as Ethanol, is found useful widely as an alternative fuel for engines. In view of the growing demand of the ethanol, search of an alternative source for its production has also been increased. Banana is one of the most familar and widely used fruit. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, India is the largest banana producing nation. Many items like banana chips, juice, banana cue are made from banana. After the consumption of the flesh, the peelings are just thrown as garbage with no use. India is facing two major problems, energy crisis and proper waste disposal. So, we are here with an idea of using that waste peelings to produce ethanol to help for its increasing demand in the present situation. Method: The production of Ethanol from Banana peels involves two phases. i)Fermentation ii)Distillation The peels of nendran variety of bananas are taken as they are rich in cellulose and are kept in hot oven at 338K and dried sample is taken and is dissolved in hot water for starch extraction through soxhlet apparatus. This solution is treated with amylase enzyme for hydrolysis of starch to occur. It is the subjected to fermentation process by inoculation of S.cerevisiae for 3 days at 300K which results in the production of ethanol. Ethanol from the solution is extracted by the Steam distillation which is the most efficient of all the distillation processes. Steam is supplied from the top of the flask in which ethanol solution is present and the ethanol vapours are collected from another outlet and are cooled to obtain ethanol. Result: For 320 gm of dried sample, this yields 18.36% of the ethanol production. The main advantage of Ethanol is its organic origins. Ethanol does burn cleaner than gasoline and also doesnot contain significant amounts of toxic materials like lead and benzene.When Ethanol of 15% when blended with 75% of gasoline is used for vehicles, it emits less amount of toxic substances comparatively. Conclusion: This experiment finds an effective bio-waste that could be converted into ethanol to help relieve the dependency on oil and the environment. Banana peel is a wastage material by using it we can produce more ethanol because it has more sugar when compared to other household bio-wastages. This also meets the need of energy crisis as well as a solution for the disposal of waste materials. Bibliography: www.techtop.in/asset http://www.sciencedirect.com http://region3.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=402:ethanol-production-from-waste-banana-peelings-&catid=15:chemistry&Itemid=45

Art: in the beginning Essay

Art, can you imagine a time when art wasn’t part of your culture, it has been around for an extremely long time even the crave man did it. Imagine how much it has evolved since then. In order to understand the technical aspect of art, how the art was created and understanding it’s meaning, you have to travel back in time to Egyptian art. Egypt started it all which influenced the Greeks’ art. Both Egyptian and Greek art has played a heavy influence on today’s Western traditional art. However, they both went about the creation of Art differently. They had different focal points, technics and humanistic views. Embark through the journey of learning about Ancient Art and maybe your view point on art will change. Egyptian imagery was governed by sociality ideals of what was suitable at the time which is why their art seem to appear extremely stagnant. This was done on purpose because they believe that it made their art seem stable with a deific balance. Egyptian art had a common theme, its focused on gods/goddess, royalty and the afterlife. Their art conveyed an idealized version of a person. However, Greeks art may have been influenced by Egyptian art but they took a more of a realistic focal point of art. When creating a human they created a realistic idea of a person by emphasizing facial expressions, stance and their location upon the canvas. When the Egyptian may have focus more on the afterlife then the living the Greeks was the opposite, they value life. Their differences doesn’t stop there it is evident that they both used different approaches to create art. Every artist has a median they used to create the picture they have in their mind. For instance the Egyptian used stone, wood and metal to create sculptures. This limited the amount of movement and actions of the depicted image. Egyptian artists embraced the two-dimensional surfaces. This is where registers where created, separate the scene in the picture as well as a floor for the figure to appear to be standing on. Without the registers the scene would appear chaotic; battles and hunting scenes. The Greeks enjoy creating art on pottery, the Black-and-Red (later there was also Red-and-Black) techniques were used to decorate fine pottery. The formation and creation of the pot in its self is art with the added effect of the  picture that was place on the surface. This form of art had a practical used to it because the specific shapes signified its daily usage, storing and transportation of wine and amphora (food things). Both Egypt and Greece biggest influence of art was based on the human world. They saw the beauty of the naked body but they still have different ideals. The Egypt highlighted the physic of a person rather the humanistic characteristic. While the Greek figure is in the nude, athletic built, youthful, and has a perfect proportion. Egyptians mainly focus on the complete picture. If you standing in an ancient art museum will you be able to identify the Egyptian art and the Greek art by now looking at the technical aspect? They may have a big influence on today’s world of art. The creation of pottery is relatively the same just more efficient with modern technology. The center point of art may have shifted but they all universally go back to the same theme, human life. The technical aspect of art varies now a days and humans remain the focal point of art. Both Egyptians and Greeks approach of art was great, both embodies today’s art.

Gladiator: Critical film essay Essay

Ridley Scott’s Gladiator is the critically acclaimed 2000 film starring Russell Crowe which won forty-eight awards, including a BAFTA for best film. Gladiator depicts the tale of Maximus Decimus Meridius and his struggle against the might of the Roman Empire and the vicious gladiatorial arenas. Throughout Scott’s masterpiece are a wide range of filmic techniques in the visual and auditory channels that collaborate in enunciating the overall narrative. The opening sequence is a prime example that uses Mise-en-scene, lighting, costume and film speed to enunciate the key scene. The opening scene begins with some historical information that introduces the audience into the scene and sets up the narrative. Scott informs his audience on the vast scale of the Roman Empire, â€Å"One quarter of the world’s population lived and died under the Caesars.† The emphasis is on â€Å"and died† in order to set the scene for the incoming battle. The Universal and Dre amWorks logos are in a sepia colour. This colour informs the audience that the film is set in the past due to it being used for old photographs and ink. The historical information is accompanied by calming, serene music which leads to the first view of the protagonist. Scott has made use of coloured lighting, incorporating gold (which is representative of the wealth the Roman Empire had) in many scenes throughout the film. The colour gold is an interesting choice because it represents peace and riches which could also be a reference to the Roman afterlife Elysium. Scott has used Mise-en-scene in the first shot of the protagonist, brushing his hand in the corn field. Although the audience are only presented with an extreme close up shot of his hand; they learn about his character through Scott’s control of what appears in the frame. The audience sees a wedding ring on his hand and so learn that he is a family man. The critic John Gibbs also comments on Mise-en scene, â€Å"the contents of the frame and the way they are organised.† During the close-up of the protagonist’s hand, the audience can hear a diegetic sound of the wheat blowing. A non-diegetic sound of children playing and soothing music can also be heard which again tel ls the audience he is a family man with something to loose. The consonant tone of music and golden cornfields set up an idyllic scene of calmness which instantly contrasts when the frame cuts to a harsh, cold and dark Germanic battlefield. The camera uses a medium close up of Maximus’s face which reveals the emotions of a tired soldier. Maximus catches a glimpse of a red  robin which symbolises his near return home to the summer and his family. The robin’s red breast could also be a signifier of the forthcoming bloodshed. When Maximus moves on to greet his army a long shot is used which displays him walking alone. The theme of isolation comes into play which also recurs throughout the film. As the battle scene draws near, a high angle long shot is used to display the mighty Roman army. Costume is used a great deal in Gladiator and adds to the films authentic feel. A medium close up shot is used for the first time on Emperor Marcus Aurelius which shows him wearing rich clothing and surrounded by knights. This scene only lasts a few seconds but the audience discover he is a man of importance through costume. Moreover, Scott wanted Maximus to appear as a strong character that holds high authority as an important character. This is achieved through costume as Maximus’s armour is bigger than all other characters and has different insignias weaved into it. The costume for the barbarian army is rather contrasting to that of the Roman Empire. The barbarians are dressed in rugged cloth which suggests they are not nearly as advanced or wealthy as the Roams who wear steel armour. A Critical Introd uction to Film highlights the importance of costume, â€Å"Costume provides information about time and place, but, more importantly, they express social milieu and personal style.† At 04:41 the barbarian leader steps forward from his army and lunges the head of the Roman messenger into the swampy ground and disrespects the Roman army. This is a casual chain of events that help drive the plot forward, â€Å"Film narration moves forward by a succession of events linked in a casual chain.† It is evident that the Roman army will fight now and Maximus kneels down to run dirt through his hands which is a recurring motif. The motif shows the spiritual side of Maximus, he asks the gods to fight beside him. As Maximus kneels down the audience are given a Point of View shot through Maximus staring into a dog’s eyes. The dog symbolises the brute force of Maximus and suggests he is a wild character. As Gladiator mounts his horse the music quickens and a non-diegetic drum beat begins to enunciate the battle scene. The music increases pace as the battle almost begins which heightens audience’s tension and excitement. As the battle begins a wave of Roman arrows are dispersed and computer generated imagery showcases a variety of special effects. A long range establishing shot on a high angle displays the dest ruction that the Roman Empire is unleashing. As  Gladiator rides with his cavalry there is an array of fast cutting shots that last a few seconds each. The fast paced shots give the audience a battle like feel with exaggerated sound effects of swords clashing and explosions. Maximus demonstrates his leadership role by shouting commands like, â€Å"Stay with me† and â€Å"Hold the line† . After the establishing shots of the battle Scott includes scenes that are more subjective to Gladiator. The gory battle follows Maximus as he enters a slow-motion phase that displays his disorientated point of view of the battle and a montage of his men fighting. Furthermore, the dog also engages in battle which suggests he is strong and independent like Gladiator. Ridley Scott’s Gladiator incorporates brilliant techniques that contribute in enunciating the opening sequence. These techniques are things such as the use of costume which generates an authentic feel and camera speed which demonstrates a terrifying battle. A strong use of Mise-en-scene shows how the narrative develops through camera lighting and casual chains in the plot.

Cultural Autobiography Essay

Cultural Biography: How My Roots Shape My Identity It is often said that we should not let a single feature of ourselves define who we are. For example, a basketball should not only be an athlete, but must also value her roles as a sister, a daughter, a student, and anything else that gives her life meaning. A doctor should not only focus on his identity in the medical field but also his place in his neighborhood, his church, and, of course, his family. Otherwise, he would be considered the workaholic. In many cases, though, it is very easy to do. People’s identities are made up of all the roles they play in their lives. Defining oneself or someone else in only way is not healthy because it does not consider the full complexity the person. Thinking of ourselves in a limited way, such as if I considered myself only a student but did not consider my roles as a friend to others and a family member, could lead to shallow thinking. Thinking of others in such a way can result in stereotyping and even discrimination, such as if someo ne thinks she knows all she that needs to know about someone based on his religious beliefs. Nonetheless, not all aspects of our identities contribute equally to the whole. Certain elements of our environment and background help to shape us fundamentally. They seem to serve as a base for everything else that we would learn, do, and become. I think everyone has one or two areas of that nature. For me, I think that one of the most defining traits about me is the culture I came from, which is Mainland Chinese. Although I keep an open mind and try to learn new ways of looking at the world, the beliefs of my upbringing often are dominant. If you asked me to describe who I am at my core, I would probably say that I am a Chinese woman. Culture, of course, comes from the people around us. As I see it, my family, including a large extended family, has been the most influential community in shaping who I am today, because they passed on their culture to me. Often we do not realize what is our culture until we leave it. I can remember when I first arrived in America and stayed for a short time with a host family. They had a daughter who was 10 years old. She had a little cold at the time. She drank cold orange juice. I was so shocked that her mother allowed her to drink it. In my family, we feel that cold drinks are not good for sick people and that they can hurt the stomach. Many people in China think this way. I could almost hear my own mother’s voice in my head, scolding her disapproving of the cold drink. She and her sisters could never accept this. After hearing this idea for so many years, I, too, was starting to have the same reaction. When people have flu or cold, in China the appropriate drink is thought to be hot water. I suggested to the girl’s mother that she should drink warm water. They both suddenly got a disgust look on their faces. They said orange juice would be better because it has a lot of vitamin C to fight the germs. This was one of my first lessons in culture, both Am erican and my own. For my part, I still do not like to have very cold drinks. However, I do not make any suggestion about what other people should drink. In explaining how my family has influenced me, I should discuss some basic elements about Chinese culture. It is collectivist culture, not individual culture like America. That means that Mainland Chinese society tends to see the group as being more important than the person. The question then is who is the group. Based on stereotypical Western movies or shows, it would be easy to assume that nearly all Chinese act and look alike and that they would see themselves as one group. In fact, this is not true at all. Chinese people think in much smaller terms, most typically, and would see their immediate family, including elders such as parents and grandparents, as their group. In some sense, they would also consider old friends and former and current co-workers to be part of their group. It is not so common in Mainland China to make many new friends as adulthood. People in China depend on these tight networks to help them in hard times, and they have to be ready to repay the favor at som e point in the future. Tight informal networks are very important for getting by in life in China. Chinese culture value family piety. It means we believe in a strong obligation to respect and honor our family members. I would always try my  best to take care of my parents and also older relatives such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles. In a broad sense, family members, because all consider themselves a close group, would do almost anything to help each other. As is said in English, they would take the shirt from his or her own back to give to the other person. This kind of thinking is based on Confucianism, where taking care of the family is considered to be the highest value. Unfortunately, a related matter is that sometimes in Mainland China, people are not as quick to get involved when a stranger needs help, and some people without integrity are quick to take advantage of strangers and cheat them. We also do not have as much public volunteer and charity culture, as many people would feel guilty if they spend their money on people who are outside their own family. The concept of taking care of the family is so important to culture that it is sometimes humorous to other people from other countries. I once was at dinner in a group that included both American and international students. Some people were talking about what they would do if they won the lottery. A Chinese boy said he guessed that if he won, he would soon get married, and have a child. His friend, another boy from China, commented that the money would not only last for the lifetime for him and his son, but also for generations into the future. The American boys at the table laughed at the Chinese boys’ ideas. They thought they should use the money for their own fun, and would not like to get married. However, the Chinese students were looking from Chinese point of view, where not only the individual but the entire family name and bloodline is considered. They see a responsibility to their ancestors and to future bloodline that they should have a child. Personally, I like the viewpoint of thinking about multiple generations and not only focusing on the present. I have always been raised by my family to hold this point of view. Without a network of family and close friends, it is hard to survive in China, especially during hard times several decades ago. It is not so easy to get credit, so people rely on their networks to help them make a down payment for a house. Many people lack health insurance, and so if they needed and expensive surgery, they could perhaps ask their closest family and associates for help with money. Furthermore, in hospital, it is not like in America where nurses feed and bathe the  patients. In China, patients’ family members must help with those chores, and nurses usually would not help. As a result of these factors, Chinese people spend a lot of time cultivating their networks by choosing the right gifts on holidays, offering a helping hand when possible, and asking for help when needed. It is fair t o say that in China, if you do not have close connections in your life, including family members, friends, coworkers, then it is almost like you do not exist, according to society’s point of view. On the other hand, if you do have a family, then you feel much more secure and happy. You also get a large amount of your own identity from the group rather from your individual situation. It is important to behave well in society and try to be successful not only for your own sake, but also in order to create a good name for your family. Therefore I think that sometimes even if I do not feel like studying sometimes, I push myself to do so anyway, because if I came to America and did not perfect well in university, then I would create a bad impression on my family, including parents and extended relatives, as well. In fact, Chinese people from Mainland often do not like to spend time alone or to be in secluded places. We tend to like crowds and a lot of excitement and perceive them as safer because it would be harder for criminals to get away with serious crime amid a crowd. I felt strongly this way when I first arrived in America, but now I am getting used to peace and quiet. I have heard that Americans often like to go camping or fishing in order to get away from other people. This concept is a little different from China. I remember showing my mother a picture of our campus and she wanted to know why it looked so lonely. Later I took a photo when more students were out walking, and she seemed to feel much more comforted that I was in a safe place. On the other hand, some Americans have told me they think crowds are more dangerous, because it is easier for thieves to pick pockets or commit other crimes. My immediate and extended family has always been a source of much emotional support for me. My mother has several siblings and they each have children, so I have many aunts, uncles, and cousins. They always ask what I am doing in my life and they give me suggestions. They are not afraid to criticize me  if they feel it is warranted, such as for eating too much junk foods or not studying hard enough. In Chinese culture, these comments would never be taken as offense but instead in a spirit of caring. I always spend much time finding appropriate Chinese New Year gifts for my aunts and uncles as a show of respect. Sometimes the gifts could be as simple as fruit baskets, chocolates, or cake. I just want to show them that I am thinking of them. My family, including parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, serves as my home base on life. I have always felt that no matter what happened, there is a safe haven with many people who always cared about me. Much of Chinese family culture is expressed over food. If I go to visit one of my aunts and she knew I am coming, then it is sure that she will prepare my favorite noodle dish. Caring is often expressed with food. From my mother and father and several of their siblings and my grandparents, I learned to cook many dishes at a young. I learned mostly at quite a young age. In this way, too, my family has been the biggest influence on my life, as now I cook almost every day and can take care of myself. I do not need to depend on others to cook and I do not have to go to restaurants except for fun. Over meals, much culture gets passed to children as adults talk about what is going on in their lives and how they handle it. They often give advice to children, but it seems to be that there is not as much two-way communications culture as in America and other Western countries. In other words, adults would not often ask children what they think about things. I am sure that I am not the only person who feels that family has been the largest influence in life, and certainly not the only Chinese person with this idea. In fact, when we are away from our families, we try to recreate the experience in some ways. In UC, there are many Chinese students all in the same situation, living away from their home country. We have formed friend groups and often cook together, go to restaurants, or go to other activities. At times, groups of students even go on vacation to New York or Chicago or other locations. As it is in China, most social activities for us here have revolved around eating food. We often chat, give each other advice, and try to help each other to study and make good grades. As vitamin and other health supplements are very popular, we often discuss products  that we have tried or plan to try. Everyone has similar goals and we almost do not even need to say them out loud, because they are widely known. We all come from similar kinds o f families, usually involved in business. Everyone wants to make good grades, be successful, and make their parents happy. My friends are a very important group to me here, but in my overall life, I guess they are not nearly as influential to me as my relatives are. Chinese families were large for many years, sometimes with seven to 10 children. I know that my great grandmother came from a very large family. However, because of overpopulation, China has implemented the one-child policy. Although there are exceptions, the general rule is that only one child is allowed per couple. Now China is becoming a land of spoiled only-children. I often wonder what will happen to China’s family culture and if culture and knowledge will be passed down as efficiently. Many people grow up without uncles, aunts, cousins or, of course, siblings. This seems to be a significant social issue for a country whose character is still collectivist. Perhaps China will make the shift rather quickly to a culture of individualism. Or perhaps they will express collectivism in some other different formats, such as neighborhood groups and volunteer societies. At any rate, eventually rising population of people without close relatives to watch after them as they age will mean a need for more caregiving and health care professionals. There are many aspects that define my life, including my status as a student, family member, and friend. While these are important roles, they do not capture everything about who I am. One element that runs deeper than those items is my culture, most of which I received from relatives. I grew up in China until coming to school at UC. My thinking has certainly been influenced by the time I have spent living abroad, but it nonetheless does continue to be Chinese at the heart. In a Chinese family, your family is almost literally all that you have to depend on in many cases. I am quite thankful that I have a wonderful family.